Attacking the Person, Not the Argument

Instead of addressing someone's point, you attack their character, credentials, or circumstances.

Student Example

"Your presentation idea is bad because you're not even a marketing major."

• Attacks the person's major, not the actual idea
• The quality of an idea doesn't depend on your major

Professional Example

"This proposal won't work because you've only been here 6 months."

• Attacks tenure, not the proposal's merits
• New employees can have great ideas

Why It's Wrong

An argument's validity doesn't depend on who makes it. Even if the person has flaws, their argument might still be correct.

How to Counter

Redirect to the actual argument: "Let's focus on the merits of the proposal itself, regardless of who suggested it."

Attacking a Distorted Version

Instead of addressing what someone actually said, you twist their words into something easier to attack.

Student Example

• You say: "I think lectures should be shorter"
• They respond: "So you want to learn nothing and waste everyone's time?"

They've turned "shorter lectures" into "learn nothing" - a much easier target.

Professional Example

• You say: "Let's review our pricing strategy"
• They respond: "So you want to slash prices and lose all profit?"

They've turned "review" into "slash prices" - a distortion of your actual suggestion.

How to Spot It

Ask yourself: "Is this really what they said, or is this an exaggeration?"

How to Counter

Calmly restate your actual position: "That's not what I suggested. I'm proposing we review our pricing, not eliminate profit margins."

Just Because A and B Happened Together Doesn't Mean A Caused B

This is one of the most common errors in reasoning - assuming that because two things occurred together, one caused the other.

Student Example

"I drank coffee before every exam I did well on. Therefore, coffee causes good grades."

The Problem: You're ignoring other factors like:

• You studied hard before those exams
• They were subjects you're naturally good at
• You got enough sleep

Professional Example

"Sales increased after we hired John in marketing. Therefore, John caused the sales increase."

The Problem: Ignoring:

• Seasonal buying trends
• A concurrent marketing campaign
• Competitor issues

The Real Skill

When you see two things happening together, ask: "What else could explain this? What other factors am I missing?"

How to Avoid It

Look for confounding variables - other factors that could explain the outcome.

"They Said It, So It Must Be True"

Assuming something is correct simply because someone in authority said it.

Student Example

"The professor said it, so it must be right."

The Problem: Even professors can make mistakes, be outdated, or be speaking outside their expertise.

Professional Example

"The CEO approved it, so we shouldn't question it."

The Problem: CEOs don't have all the information and can make flawed decisions.

When Authority IS Relevant

Authority matters when:

• The person is an expert IN THIS SPECIFIC FIELD
• They're citing evidence, not just opinion
• There's consensus among experts

The Balance

Respect expertise, but verify claims independently. Good authorities welcome questions and can back up their positions with evidence.

Only Seeing What You Want to See

We naturally seek out information that confirms what we already believe and ignore contradicting evidence.

How It Works

If you believe "Group projects are bad," you'll:

• Remember every bad group experience
• Forget successful collaborations
• Notice articles criticizing group work
• Skip articles praising collaboration

Real-World Impact

This affects major decisions:

• Choosing a college based on one good review, ignoring red flags
• Investing in a company after reading only positive reports
• Defending a failing project by focusing only on small wins

How to Combat It

Actively seek disconfirming evidence. Ask yourself:

• "What would prove me wrong?"
• "Am I ignoring contradictory data?"
• "Have I genuinely considered the alternative?"

Professional Application

Before finalizing decisions, assign someone to play "devil's advocate" - their job is to find flaws in your reasoning.

"I've Already Invested Too Much to Quit"

Continuing something because of past investment, not because of future benefit.

Student Example

"I've already spent 2 years in this major. I can't switch now, even though I hate it."

The Problem: The 2 years are gone either way. The question is: what's best for the next 2 years?

Professional Example

"We've already spent $100,000 on this project. We can't stop now."

The Problem: If the project is failing, continuing wastes MORE money. The $100K is already gone.

The Right Question

Don't ask: "How much have I invested?" Ask: "If I were starting fresh today, would I make this choice?"

Real-World Decision Making

Past investment should inform (you've learned something), but not dictate future decisions. Evaluate options based on future costs and benefits, not past sunk costs.